Different models of economic growth stress alternative causes of economic growth. The principal theories of economic growth include 不同的经济增长模式强调经济增长的其他原因。经济增长的主要理论包括:

Mercantilism 重商主义 – Wealth of a nation determined by the accumulation of gold and running trade surplus 一个国家的财富由黄金的积累和贸易顺差决定。

Classical theory 古典理论 – Adam Smith placed emphasis on the role of increasing returns to scale (economies of scale/specialisation) 亚当-斯密强调了规模收益增加的作用（规模经济/专业化）

Neo-classical-theory 新古典主义理论 – Growth based on supply-side factors such as labour productivity, size of the workforce, factor inputs. 增长基于供应方因素，如劳动生产率、劳动力规模、要素投入

Endogenous growth theories 内生增长理论 – Rate of economic growth strongly influenced by human capital and rate of technological innovation. 经济增长速度受到人力资本和技术创新速度的强烈影响

Keynesian demand-side 凯恩斯的需求方 – Keynes argued that aggregate demand could play a role in influencing economic growth in the short and medium-term. Though most growth theories ignore the role of aggregate demand, some economists argue recessions can cause hysteresis effects and lower long-term economic growth. 凯恩斯认为，总需求可以在短期和中期内发挥影响经济增长的作用。尽管大多数增长理论忽略了总需求的作用，但一些经济学家认为，经济衰退会造成滞后效应，降低长期经济增长

Limits to growth 增长的极限 – From an environmental perspective, some argue in the very long-term economic growth will be constrained by resource degradation and global warming. This means that economic growth may come to an end – reminiscent of Malthus theories. 从环境的角度来看，一些人认为从长远来看，经济增长将受到资源退化和全球变暖的制约。这意味着经济增长可能会结束--让人想起马尔萨斯的理论

2019 年 4 月，我在一个管理学家聚集的论坛上做了一场报告。开场我引用了管理学大师，亦被称为“伟大的离经叛道者”明茨伯格的一句话。他说：“管理如登山，左边是管理实践的悬崖，右边是管理理论的深渊，稍不小心就掉下去。”用理论把握实践的分寸感尤其重要，这就要回到情境之中、本质之中，而情境与本质的融合，就是我想在本书中集中落笔的结构。

转进：以退为进

It is argued that economic growth may have limitations caused by lack of raw materials, climate change and overcrowding. Given the failure of T.Malthus predictions to come true, these theories are often rubbished. Nevertheless, there may come a time when growth is constrained by environmental factors.

Role of markets in determining supply and demand 市场在决定供应和需求方面的作用

The productivity of labour. Smith argued income per capita was determined by “the state of the skill, dexterity, and judgment with which labour is applied in any nation” (Wealth of Nations I.6) 劳动生产率。斯密认为，人均收入是由 "任何国家运用劳动的技能、灵巧和判断力的状况 "决定的（《国富论》I.6）

Role of trade in enabling greater specialisation. 贸易在提高专业化程度方面的作用

Increasing returns to scale – e.g. specialisation we see in modern factories and the economies of scale of increased production 规模收益递增--例如，我们在现代工厂中看到的专业化，以及产量增加带来的规模经济

如果能从企业的战略实现、战略控制中找出一个关键环节，一旦企业掌控了这个环节，事情就能产生质的变化，哪怕其他布局效率滞后也不会产生大的影响。这个环节就是“战略咽喉”。

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